Aztec
Longevity
The Aztec Empire began in 1428 with the Aztec defeat of the Tepanec and rising to power, the empire ended in 1519 with the Spanish conquest.[1]
Population
It is estimated that the Aztec Empire consisted of 3-4 million people.[2]
Size
The Aztec Empire ranged from the Central Mexican valleys in the highlands to the Guatemalan tropical lowlands covering 80,000 miles² / 207,200 km².[3]
However, this empire was only a loose union as no attempts were made to assimilate conquered people, their political structure remained intact as this minimised administrative difficulties for the Aztec, and sometimes the ruler would be left in place or replaced by another from the same family.[4] There were also independent areas within the empire as territories not deemed suitable for conquest were bypassed.[5]
Economy
The Aztec economy was made up of long distance trade, the market and tribute.[6] The main forms of money were cacao beans and cotton textiles.[7]
Trade and markets were orderly, organised and mainly independent from the state.[8] There were weekly markets in settlements containing a huge volume of goods, their importance and size increased in the late Aztec period, they were in a regional system and a hierarchy of four levels, differentiated by the number of people using the market and the amount and variety of produce and services, there was also a market tax. [9] Trade and exchanging of information meant regional economies were closely linked to the Aztec economy and the late population growth is seen as evidence of a prospering economy.[10]
On-the-other-hand, this late growth in population and the expansion of borders meant trying to feed the empire became a problem, it also meant the distance to be covered to wage war made warfare less effective, a serious problem for an economy based around tribute.[11] The economic system became one of rapidly reducing returns in a system of administrative and logistical inadequacies.[12]
Military
Aztec society was devoted to war, it permeated society at all levels, to be born male was to be a warrior, all young men had warrior training.[13]
There was no permanent standing army; service in the military was a requirement of all men and armies were raised quickly.[14]
The aim of war was to conquer city-states and force them to pay tribute, not necessarily to expand Aztec territory. A secondary aim could be capturing soldiers for sacrifice.[15]
Success in battle was an important aspect of male identity; boys learnt military values and skills; men’s status was determined by the number of captives taken in battle, with each, he achieved more privileges and getting up this ladder was a large source of pride.[16] To keep these honours warriors had to maintain their high level of performance in battle, a lapse could see him stripped of his honours.[17] The most successful joined military orders and became leaders in battle.[18]
The failure of a youth to take captives after a couple of chances caused expulsion.[19]
For those who committed serious offences punishment was quick and brutal.[20]
War was ritualised, fought mainly on to one, followed protocol and was fierce.[21]
The main Aztec weapons were spears and swords, the latter of which was a long, flat wooden handle into which rows of very sharp blades were fitted, making them a very effective weapon but they were mainly used to capture not to kill, they also had slings, clubs, bows and arrows, wooden shields that could stop swords and arrows.[22]
Body armour was made of thick cotton cloth, the design of which could stop darts and arrows.[23]
Victory was to kill or capture enough men to subdue the opposing force. Sometimes the opposing city was conquered and partially destroyed. The victorious ruler set a tribute quota and as long as this was paid, the ruler did not interfere in the other city’s internal affairs.[24]
Merchants acted as spies in foreign territory, collecting information on resources and wealth, this information would then often be used to direct war as the Aztec would only go to war with a territory if it was beatable and worth their while in resources and wealth.[25]
Technology
The technology involved in irrigation had existed for many years but the Aztec built aqueducts and larger canal systems, they also built on agricultural technology and bronze production, already a sophisticated craft, and craft technology from previous civilisations, modifying blade production.[26] They mastered complex technologies involved in rubber, ceramics, textiles, lapidary and feather working.[27]
Their construction technology was impressive as lime plaster involves several chemical reactions resulting in a substance almost as hard as concrete and their engineering and architecture shows evidence of mathematics.[28]
[1] Geoffrey W Conrad and Arthur A Demarest, Religion and Empire: The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansion (Cambridge University press: Cambridge, 1984), p.11; Conrad and Arthur, Religion and Empire, p. 23
[2] Michael E Smith, The Aztecs 2nd ed (Blackwell: Oxford, 2003), p.57
[3] Conrad and Demarest, Religion and Empire, p. 11; ‘Aztec’ Encyclopaedia Britannica, at www.britannica.com [accessed 27 February 2014]
[4] Conrad and Demarest, Religion and Empire, p. 53
[5] Conrad and Demarest, Religion and Empire, p. 53
[6] Conrad and Demarest, Religion and Empire, p. 49
[7] Smith, The Aztecs, p.109
[8] Smith, The Aztecs, pp. 107-8
[9] Smith, The Aztecs, pp.107-10
[10] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 123
[11] Conrad and Demarest, Religion and Empire, pp. 56-61
[12] Conrad and Demarest, Religion and Empire, pp. 58-60
[13] Inga Clendinnen, Aztecs: An Interpretation (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1991), pp. 111-3; Conrad and Demarest, Religion and Empire, p. 52
[14] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 154
[15] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 154
[16] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 154
[17] Clendinnen, Aztecs, p. 117
[18] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 154
[19] Clendinnen, Aztecs, p. 118
[20] Clendinnen, Aztecs, p. 117
[21] Smith, The Aztecs, pp. 154-5
[22] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 155; Clendinnen, Aztecs, p. 116
[23] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 155
[24] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 155
[25] Conrad and Demarest, Religion and Empire, p. 49
[26] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 68-9; Smith, The Aztecs, p. 253
[27] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 254
[28] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 254
Longevity
The Aztec Empire began in 1428 with the Aztec defeat of the Tepanec and rising to power, the empire ended in 1519 with the Spanish conquest.[1]
Population
It is estimated that the Aztec Empire consisted of 3-4 million people.[2]
Size
The Aztec Empire ranged from the Central Mexican valleys in the highlands to the Guatemalan tropical lowlands covering 80,000 miles² / 207,200 km².[3]
However, this empire was only a loose union as no attempts were made to assimilate conquered people, their political structure remained intact as this minimised administrative difficulties for the Aztec, and sometimes the ruler would be left in place or replaced by another from the same family.[4] There were also independent areas within the empire as territories not deemed suitable for conquest were bypassed.[5]
Economy
The Aztec economy was made up of long distance trade, the market and tribute.[6] The main forms of money were cacao beans and cotton textiles.[7]
Trade and markets were orderly, organised and mainly independent from the state.[8] There were weekly markets in settlements containing a huge volume of goods, their importance and size increased in the late Aztec period, they were in a regional system and a hierarchy of four levels, differentiated by the number of people using the market and the amount and variety of produce and services, there was also a market tax. [9] Trade and exchanging of information meant regional economies were closely linked to the Aztec economy and the late population growth is seen as evidence of a prospering economy.[10]
On-the-other-hand, this late growth in population and the expansion of borders meant trying to feed the empire became a problem, it also meant the distance to be covered to wage war made warfare less effective, a serious problem for an economy based around tribute.[11] The economic system became one of rapidly reducing returns in a system of administrative and logistical inadequacies.[12]
Military
Aztec society was devoted to war, it permeated society at all levels, to be born male was to be a warrior, all young men had warrior training.[13]
There was no permanent standing army; service in the military was a requirement of all men and armies were raised quickly.[14]
The aim of war was to conquer city-states and force them to pay tribute, not necessarily to expand Aztec territory. A secondary aim could be capturing soldiers for sacrifice.[15]
Success in battle was an important aspect of male identity; boys learnt military values and skills; men’s status was determined by the number of captives taken in battle, with each, he achieved more privileges and getting up this ladder was a large source of pride.[16] To keep these honours warriors had to maintain their high level of performance in battle, a lapse could see him stripped of his honours.[17] The most successful joined military orders and became leaders in battle.[18]
The failure of a youth to take captives after a couple of chances caused expulsion.[19]
For those who committed serious offences punishment was quick and brutal.[20]
War was ritualised, fought mainly on to one, followed protocol and was fierce.[21]
The main Aztec weapons were spears and swords, the latter of which was a long, flat wooden handle into which rows of very sharp blades were fitted, making them a very effective weapon but they were mainly used to capture not to kill, they also had slings, clubs, bows and arrows, wooden shields that could stop swords and arrows.[22]
Body armour was made of thick cotton cloth, the design of which could stop darts and arrows.[23]
Victory was to kill or capture enough men to subdue the opposing force. Sometimes the opposing city was conquered and partially destroyed. The victorious ruler set a tribute quota and as long as this was paid, the ruler did not interfere in the other city’s internal affairs.[24]
Merchants acted as spies in foreign territory, collecting information on resources and wealth, this information would then often be used to direct war as the Aztec would only go to war with a territory if it was beatable and worth their while in resources and wealth.[25]
Technology
The technology involved in irrigation had existed for many years but the Aztec built aqueducts and larger canal systems, they also built on agricultural technology and bronze production, already a sophisticated craft, and craft technology from previous civilisations, modifying blade production.[26] They mastered complex technologies involved in rubber, ceramics, textiles, lapidary and feather working.[27]
Their construction technology was impressive as lime plaster involves several chemical reactions resulting in a substance almost as hard as concrete and their engineering and architecture shows evidence of mathematics.[28]
[1] Geoffrey W Conrad and Arthur A Demarest, Religion and Empire: The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansion (Cambridge University press: Cambridge, 1984), p.11; Conrad and Arthur, Religion and Empire, p. 23
[2] Michael E Smith, The Aztecs 2nd ed (Blackwell: Oxford, 2003), p.57
[3] Conrad and Demarest, Religion and Empire, p. 11; ‘Aztec’ Encyclopaedia Britannica, at www.britannica.com [accessed 27 February 2014]
[4] Conrad and Demarest, Religion and Empire, p. 53
[5] Conrad and Demarest, Religion and Empire, p. 53
[6] Conrad and Demarest, Religion and Empire, p. 49
[7] Smith, The Aztecs, p.109
[8] Smith, The Aztecs, pp. 107-8
[9] Smith, The Aztecs, pp.107-10
[10] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 123
[11] Conrad and Demarest, Religion and Empire, pp. 56-61
[12] Conrad and Demarest, Religion and Empire, pp. 58-60
[13] Inga Clendinnen, Aztecs: An Interpretation (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1991), pp. 111-3; Conrad and Demarest, Religion and Empire, p. 52
[14] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 154
[15] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 154
[16] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 154
[17] Clendinnen, Aztecs, p. 117
[18] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 154
[19] Clendinnen, Aztecs, p. 118
[20] Clendinnen, Aztecs, p. 117
[21] Smith, The Aztecs, pp. 154-5
[22] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 155; Clendinnen, Aztecs, p. 116
[23] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 155
[24] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 155
[25] Conrad and Demarest, Religion and Empire, p. 49
[26] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 68-9; Smith, The Aztecs, p. 253
[27] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 254
[28] Smith, The Aztecs, p. 254